A Region without Statelessness?: How Central Asia Proved It Is Possible

Imagine living in the country where you were born but never having the right to call it home. No passport, no identity document, no access to education, healthcare, or legal employment. Every visit to a government office ends the same way: “We have no record of you.”

For hundreds of thousands of people in Central Asia, this was their reality. Statelessness—where a person is not recognized as a national (citizen) by any country—left them in limbo, unable to fully participate in society. It meant exclusion from essential services, vulnerability to exploitation, and a life spent on the margins, with no clear path to change.

But things have changed. Over the past decade or so, Central Asia has led the world in ending statelessness. The region has solved one‑third of all statelessness cases globally—a clear demonstration that with sufficient political will and strategic action, this problem can be eradicated. Since 2014, more than 220,000 formerly stateless people in Central Asia have acquired nationality (citizenship), making it one of the most successful regions in the world in reducing stateless populations.

Two countries—Kyrgyzstan (in 2019) and Turkmenistan (in 2024)—have done something remarkable: they have resolved all known cases of statelessness on their territories. While new cases may still emerge, their numbers are expected to be minimal, particularly as governments continue strengthening legal safeguards.  

Statelessness in the region has its roots in the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which left hundreds of thousands without citizenship. For many, administrative barriers, gaps in nationality laws, and complex bureaucratic procedures prolonged the situation. Some individuals lost their identity documents due to circumstances beyond their control, leaving them unable to work, travel, or access essential services such as healthcare. Others inherited statelessness, as their parents were also left without a nationality. Thanks to coordinated government action, external support, and sustained expert advocacy, Central Asia has moved from being a region with a significant stateless population to one that is leading efforts to resolve statelessness.

Over the past decade or so, Central Asia has led the world in ending statelessness. 

 The adoption of the Ashgabat Declaration on Ending Statelessness in Central Asia in 2024 marked a turning point, reaffirming the region’s commitment to ensuring every person has a legal identity. The Declaration outlines eight strategic directions, including enhancing statelessness determination procedures, ensuring universal birth registration, and facilitating cross‑border citizenship confirmation.

The impact has been profound. For some, acquiring citizenship meant securing legal employment and planning for a future that once seemed impossible. For others, it meant the ability to register their children, breaking the cycle of statelessness for the next generation.

As the world shifts from the UNHCR‑led #IBelong Campaign to the Global Alliance to End Statelessness, Central Asia is at the forefront of efforts to make statelessness a thing of the past. The success of this region serves as an inspiration for the world, demonstrating that statelessness is not an impossible problem—it is a solvable one.

Two National Success Stories

Two countries—Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan—have demonstrated that ending statelessness is both possible and achievable through a combination of strong political will, targeted legal reforms, and collaboration with civil society and international organizations.

The Kyrgyz Republic made history in 2019 by becoming the first country in the world to resolve all known cases of statelessness. This unprecedented achievement was the result of years of systematic efforts, which consisted of three basic elements.

The Kyrgyz Republic made history in 2019 by becoming the first country in the world to resolve all known cases of statelessness.

First, a nationwide campaign to identify and document stateless people. With the support of UNHCR and civil society organizations, Kyrgyz authorities conducted extensive outreach programs, even in remote and hard‑to‑reach areas. Mobile legal clinics played a key role in ensuring that no stateless person was left behind.

Second, strong partnerships with civil society. The efforts of Ferghana Valley Lawyers Without Borders, led by Nansen Award winner Azizbek Ashurov, were very important in this success. Their work, often carried out in collaboration with local government institutions, ensured that over 13,000 stateless people obtained Kyrgyz nationality.

Third, legislative reforms to prevent future cases. Kyrgyzstan implemented universal birth registration, ensuring that all children born there would receive birth certificates regardless of their parents’ status. The government also aligned its nationality laws with international standards, closing loopholes that previously led to new cases of statelessness.

The impact of these actions was immediate and profound. Once invisible to the state, thousands of people could suddenly access education, healthcare, and employment. For families that had been stateless for generations, acquiring nationality was more than a legal victory—it was the beginning of a new life with security and dignity.

In 2024, Turkmenistan granted nationality to its last known group of stateless people. The country also took important steps to prevent statelessness from re‑emerging. Three of the most important will be briefly listed here. 

First, introducing one of the world’s most detailed Statelessness Determination Procedures. Turkmenistan created a strong legal framework based on good practices from France, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, and Spain. This procedure helped identify stateless people, issue them proper documentation, and support their access to citizenship.

Second, acceding to both UN Statelessness Conventions. In 2021, Turkmenistan became the first and (so far) only country in Central Asia to accede to the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness. This marked a significant step toward aligning its legal framework on statelessness with international standards.

Third, achieving universal birth registration. Turkmenistan adopted laws to ensure all children are registered at birth, no matter their parents’ nationality or legal status—an important step to prevent new cases of statelessness.

With these actions, Turkmenistan resolved statelessness in its territory and became a global leader in efforts to end statelessness. It was the first Central Asian country to join the new Global Alliance to End Statelessness and is committed to sharing its experience with others.

Other Central Asian Successes

While the Kyrgyz Republic and Turkmenistan were the first to resolve all existing statelessness cases, the three other Central Asian countries—Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan—have also made important progress in reducing the number of stateless people and preventing new cases from arising.

Kazakhstan has taken several steps to address statelessness through legal reforms, targeted identification campaigns, and prevention measures. Three of the most important will be mentioned here.  

Kazakhstan has taken several steps to address statelessness through legal reforms, targeted identification campaigns, and prevention measures

First, identifying and documenting stateless people. In partnership with UNHCR and civil society organizations, Kazakhstan launched nationwide efforts to identify undocumented individuals at risk of statelessness or with undetermined nationality. Thousands were documented, with many confirmed either as citizens or stateless persons eligible for legal status. This helped bring many people out of legal limbo and improved their access to rights and services.

Second, introducing statelessness determination procedures. Kazakhstan was the first country in Central Asia to adopt (in 2020) a statelessness determination procedure (SDP) without acceding to either of the UN Statelessness conventions. This shows that countries may follow different paths to tackle statelessness. Some, like Turkmenistan, accede to the conventions and then incorporate the standards into national law; others, like Kazakhstan, align their legislation as a first step toward possible accession. The Kyrgyz Republic followed a similar approach, becoming the second country in the region to introduce an SDP (in 2025) before joining the conventions. These procedures allow stateless people to be formally identified, access basic rights, and eventually apply for naturalization. Kazakhstan’s early adoption of the SDP helped close protection gaps and provides an alternative option for other countries.

Third, ensuring birth registration. Legal changes now guarantee that all children born in Kazakhstan are entitled to birth registration, regardless of their parents’ nationality or legal status. While the law applies broadly, in practice, registration is more consistent for children born in medical institutions. Expanding outreach and ensuring flexible procedures remain key to reaching every child.

Kazakhstan’s experience highlights the benefit of combining legal reform with practical outreach. Its efforts show that there is no single formula for ending statelessness—different strategies can be adapted to national contexts while moving toward the shared goal of inclusion and legal identity for all. 

Tajikistan has made steady progress in reducing statelessness by introducing practical legal tools, expanding documentation efforts, and strengthening cooperation with UNHCR and civil society. Summaries of three of the most important outcomes follow.

First, identifying people at risk. Since 2014, Tajikistan has worked with UNHCR and its civil society partners to identify stateless people, those with undetermined nationality, or at risk of statelessness. By the end of 2024, over 60,000 individuals had been identified—about 70 percent were women and girls. Most were found during targeted registration exercises in four regions. Over 90 percent of those identified received support to confirm or acquire Tajik citizenship.

Second, providing legal pathways through an amnesty. In 2019, Tajikistan adopted a law on amnesty for stateless people and foreigners residing in the country without formal legal status. The law, which remained in effect until 2022, created opportunities for individuals previously excluded from residence permits or citizenship procedures to regularize their stay and, where eligible, acquire nationality. It applied to various groups, including people with expired foreign residence permits, holders of USSR documents, undocumented individuals in border areas, and those lacking proof of nationality. As a result of its implementation, the law has helped resolve the cases of about 9,000 people.

Third, building the foundation for future reforms. Although Tajikistan is not yet party to either the 1954 or 1961 UN statelessness conventions, steps have been taken toward accession. In 2023, the country’s president signed a National Action Plan under the Human Rights Strategy, which includes the development of a statelessness determination procedure and consideration of joining the conventions.

Tajikistan’s experience shows how flexible legal measures and outreach and documentation efforts can bring tangible results. Continued cooperation between the government and civil society has created momentum that may lead to deeper legal reforms and further reduce the risk of statelessness in the future.

Tajikistan’s experience shows how flexible legal measures and outreach and documentation efforts can bring tangible results. 

 Uzbekistan has made some of the most substantial contributions to resolving statelessness in Central Asia, reflecting the scale of its challenge and its strong commitment to inclusion. Among the many measures Tashkent has taken, three will be emphasized.

Uzbekistan has made some of the most substantial contributions to resolving statelessness in Central Asia

First, establishing pathways to citizenship. In 2020, Uzbekistan adopted important amendments to its citizenship law, allowing stateless people who had been permanent residents since before 1995 to acquire Uzbek nationality. This reform offered a durable solution to tens of thousands of people who had lived in the country for decades without citizenship.

Second, resolving the largest number of cases in the region. Since 2014, over 93,000 stateless people in Uzbekistan have acquired citizenship—the highest number among Central Asian countries. This includes naturalized individuals and those whose citizenship was recognized under national procedures. Many had lived in Uzbekistan for decades, often as former Soviet citizens who had never obtained the nationality of a successor state. By addressing this legacy through legal improvements as well as targeted outreach, Uzbekistan has significantly reduced statelessness on its territory, with fewer than 20,000 people remaining stateless as of the end of 2024 and efforts continuing to resolve the remaining cases.

Third, preventing future cases through birth registration. Legal reforms introduced in 2018 guarantee that all children born in Uzbekistan can be registered at birth, regardless of their parents’ nationality or legal status.

Uzbekistan’s approach illustrates how sustained political will and inclusive legal reforms can bring transformative results. The country’s achievements are an important part of Central Asia’s collective progress toward ending statelessness, and its experience offers valuable insights for other countries addressing similar challenges. 

Remaining Challenges

Despite significant progress in reducing statelessness, Central Asia continues to face a number of complex and interlinked challenges, of which seven will be discussed below. While political will remains strong and the Ashgabat Declaration offers a coordinated regional framework for action, certain legal, administrative, and socio‑economic barriers persist. 

These issues risk leaving vulnerable people behind and also threaten to undermine the hard‑earned gains of the past decade. Understanding these remaining challenges is essential to sustaining progress, ensuring everyone is included, and informing the next phase of action. Highlighting what still needs to be done to end statelessness provides a fuller picture of the journey from progress to permanence.

Highlighting what still needs to be done to end statelessness provides a fuller picture of the journey from progress to permanence. 

One, statelessness determination procedures. Among the most pressing challenges is  the incomplete or underdeveloped system of SDPs across several Central Asian countries. While Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and Turkmenistan have formally introduced SDPs, their implementation varies in effectiveness. Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, on the other hand, have yet to introduce procedures that align fully with international standards. The absence of these mechanisms leaves many stateless people without a pathway to recognition or legal status, often relegating them to live in legal invisibility for years.

The lack of a harmonized approach to SDPs also results in inconsistencies across the region. Without regionally aligned criteria for defining statelessness, individuals with a similar set of facts may be recognized in one country but not in another. This legal ambiguity is particularly problematic in cases involving people with ties to more than one Central Asian state. 

While the shared Soviet legacy has significantly shaped documentation systems and citizenship frameworks, cross‑border familial ties and mobility in this region predate the Soviet Union. Historically, communities moved freely across what are now international borders, living, working, and intermarrying without encountering today’s administrative barriers. These longstanding patterns of movement and residence mean that many people today have complex personal histories that do not neatly align with current legal categories, making it challenging to prove citizenship or qualify for it.

Two, citizenship acquisition processes. Acquiring citizenship in Central Asia can be long and challenging, especially for stateless people or those seeking naturalization. In most countries in the region, dual citizenship is not allowed. This means that individuals who wish to become citizens must give up their current nationality before applying. However, there are usually no legal guarantees that their application will be approved. As a result, they may find themselves without any nationality during the process—a period of legal limbo in which they are effectively stateless. During this time, they may not be able to access basic services.

The absence of clear safeguards worsens this problem to ensure that someone’s original citizenship is only given up once new citizenship is officially granted. Without such protections, applicants risk being permanently excluded if their naturalization is denied or significantly delayed. The naturalization procedures themselves are often long, complicated, and hard to navigate. This uncertainty discourages people from applying, especially if they cannot access legal advice or afford the administrative costs.

The consequences of these obstacles extend beyond the people directly affected. Individuals who remain stateless cannot fully participate in society or contribute to the formal economy, affecting their well‑being and broader social and economic development. The impact can also be passed down to their children. Unless governments address these gaps—through simpler and more inclusive procedures—the goal of ending statelessness in the region will remain out of reach.

Three, the burden of proof and legal complexity. Stateless people are often asked to show many documents to prove who they are, where they are from, or where they have lived. This is especially hard for people who have lived most of their lives without any official papers. They may be asked to provide documents like old Soviet passports, residence permits, their parents’ birth certificates, or letters from embassies saying they are not citizens of another country. For many, collecting all these papers is almost impossible.

They may give up on the process if they do not have free legal help or clear instructions in a language they understand. This problem is even worse in remote or rural areas, where legal support and government services are harder to reach. Also, as countries in the region move more services online, stateless people often do not have the digital skills or technology needed to use these systems. This can prevent them from registering or getting the help they need.

Four, a persistent gap in birth registration. Even though laws in Central Asian countries now require all children to be registered at birth, these laws are not always followed in practice. This is especially true for children born outside hospitals or to parents who do not have legal documents. In some cases, families must go to court to prove that a child was born. This process can take a lot of time, is legally complicated, and costs more than many families can afford.

When a child does not have a birth certificate, they are at immediate risk of becoming stateless—especially in countries where being registered at birth does not automatically make a child a citizen. Without documents, these children might not know they are excluded until they try to start school, see a doctor, or apply for an identity card. In Tajikistan, for example, there are fees for registering a birth late, which can stop low‑income parents from finishing the process. This creates a cycle where children grow up without legal identity and face many barriers later in life.

Five, lack of accurate and disaggregated data. One of the biggest challenges in addressing statelessness is that many stateless people are not counted in official data. They are often left out of national registration systems and household surveys. The Ashgabat Declaration calls for better data collection and more transparency, but putting this into practice is still uneven across the region.

National censuses are great opportunities to identify people who are stateless or undocumented. But because Central Asia is a vast region, with many people living in remote areas or are on the move for some or even most of the year, it can be difficult to reach everyone. Some individuals may not take part in the census because they do not have identification documents or are afraid of contact with government officials.

As more services and data collection move online, these groups may become more excluded. Without accurate data, governments cannot plan effectively. They may miss important information, such as how many children need school places, how many families need social support, or how many doctors are required in different communities.

Six, vulnerabilities linked to gender, age, and disability. Although nationality laws in Central Asia generally allow both women and men to pass on their nationality to their children equally, certain groups continue to face greater risks of statelessness in practice. Women, children, older persons, and persons with disabilities are particularly vulnerable due to a combination of legal, social, and economic barriers that limit their access to documentation and legal identity.

In many families, especially in rural areas or where household income is low, men are often the primary income earners and may travel abroad for work. When families decide whose documents to prioritize, the father frequently obtains a passport or other identity papers, while the mother and children remain undocumented. If the father becomes absent or unreachable, the remaining family members may struggle to obtain documents on their own. Mothers may face administrative hurdles or hidden requirements—e.g., presenting the father’s documents or presence— that make it difficult to register their children, even when the law does not explicitly require it.

Children born at home or outside of medical facilities are especially at risk of missing out on birth registration. Without legal proof of birth, they may face barriers to enrolling in school, accessing health care, or being included in social protection systems. These early gaps can result in a lifetime of exclusion.

Older persons who never transitioned from Soviet‑era documentation to citizenship of a successor state often remain undocumented. Many lack the financial resources, mobility, or support networks needed to resolve their legal status, which leaves them unable to access pensions, health care, or other public services.

Persons with disabilities also face unique challenges. Physical, communication, and environmental barriers can prevent them from traveling to registration offices or understanding the procedures required. In some cases, they may be dependent on caregivers who themselves are undocumented, making the process even more complex. Without accessible services and inclusive outreach, persons with disabilities risk being further marginalized and excluded from their rights.

These groups are not inherently stateless, but they are more likely to become or remain stateless without targeted action. Human rights principles require that all individuals have equal access to legal identity and nationality, regardless of gender, age, disability, or social status. Addressing these vulnerabilities calls for inclusive and accessible procedures, outreach tailored to different groups’ needs, and removing legal and practical barriers that prevent people from claiming their rights.

Seven, overlooked and hard‑to‑reach populations at risk of statelessness. In addition to the groups already discussed, some people are still being left out of efforts to end statelessness. These include individuals with unclear or undetermined nationality, people in detention without documents, and members of ethnic or linguistic communities who face exclusion. Because these groups are often not  counted or included in national data, their numbers and needs remain largely unknown.

People held in detention facilities without identity documents are especially at risk. They may not receive legal help or fair treatment without proof of nationality. After release, they often struggle to reintegrate into society. In addition, no specific process exists to determine if detainees are stateless or at risk of statelessness. This leaves their legal status unresolved for years.

Statelessness also affects people’s mental health. Living for years without recognition or legal identity can lead to stress, hopelessness, and mistrust of institutions. This is especially painful for those who have lived their whole lives in one country but are still not accepted as citizens.

These challenges underscore that legal reforms alone are not enough. Many people will remain excluded from solutions without inclusive implementation, sustained outreach, and better data. To truly end statelessness in Central Asia, efforts must be intensified and guided by the principles of equality, dignity, and the right of every person to belong.

To truly end statelessness in Central Asia, efforts must be intensified and guided by the principles of equality, dignity, and the right of every person to belong

The Way Ahead

Unanimously adopted by the five Central Asian states in November 2024, the Ashgabat Declaration represents both a historic milestone and a forward‑looking roadmap for regional cooperation. It marks the transition from the ten‑year #IBelong Campaign to the broader and more inclusive Global Alliance to End Statelessness, while affirming the extraordinary achievements of the past decade. With more than 220,000 people having acquired nationality in the region since 2014, Central Asia has become a global leader in efforts to resolve statelessness.

More than a reflection of past progress, the Ashgabat Declaration sets out a forward‑looking roadmap. It presents a regional commitment to eliminating residual cases of statelessness, preventing new ones, and ensuring that no one is left behind. It reaffirms Central Asia’s dedication to human dignity, legal identity, and equality before the law.

Ending statelessness is essential to achieving the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the centerpiece of which is the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)— particularly SDG16 on inclusive societies and access to justice and SDG10 on reducing inequality. Far beyond being a legal anomaly, statelessness is a fundamental driver of exclusion and marginalization. It undermines nearly every development priority, from education and health to employment, gender equality, and social cohesion.

Far beyond being a legal anomaly, statelessness is a fundamental driver of exclusion and marginalization. It undermines nearly every development priority, from education and health to employment, gender equality, and social cohesion.

The Ashgabat Declaration recognizes this link. By ensuring that every person possesses a legal identity and enjoys access to rights and services, Central Asian countries advance human rights, strengthen governance, build more resilient societies, and promote inclusive development. As the region works toward the 2030 Agenda, the commitment to eliminate statelessness will remain a central pillar of the pledge to “leave no one behind.”

The opportunity to align national and regional actions with the initiatives of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) brings additional momentum. The UNESCAP‑coordinated platform “Get Every One in the Picture” emphasizes universal civil registration and vital statistics systems—a cornerstone for ending statelessness.

The Ashgabat Declaration reinforces this priority. Achieving universal birth registration across the region will require continued legislative reform, outreach to marginalized communities, and the removal of administrative and financial barriers. As countries prepare for the Third Ministerial Conference on Civil Registration and Vital Statistics in Asia and the Pacific, scheduled for June 2025, Central Asia is poised to demonstrate how cross‑sectoral action can close gaps and strengthen legal identity systems. 

With the launch of the Global Alliance to End Statelessness, Central Asia has a new platform to share its experiences and shape global solutions. Turkmenistan has already joined the Alliance, reaffirming its commitment to international cooperation. Other countries in the region are well‑positioned to contribute through leadership, innovation, and peer exchange. The diverse experiences across Central Asia—from Turkmenistan’s full accession to the UN Statelessness Conventions, to Kazakhstan’s early introduction of a statelessness determination procedure, and Kyrgyzstan’s historic resolution of all known cases— offer valuable and complementary models that can inform and inspire efforts beyond the region.

Uzbekistan’s citizenship reforms and Tajikistan’s amnesty law show that bold national policies, supported by international cooperation and public engagement, can produce transformative results. Central Asia’s collective experience offers practical tools, lessons, and inspiration for other countries tackling similar challenges.

The Global Alliance provides a peer exchange, innovation, and collaboration platform. Through participation in the Alliance, Central Asian countries can continue to shape global solutions by sharing their expertise, hosting study visits, supporting legal and policy development, and continuing to reform their systems in line with international standards.

Central Asia has already demonstrated that statelessness is not an intractable problem, but a human rights challenge that can be solved through vision, inclusion, and sustained commitment. The decade of action under the #IBelong Campaign has laid a strong foundation. The next phase must build on that legacy—not just with technical reforms, but through systems that are accessible, inclusive, and centered on the dignity of every person.

The Ashgabat Declaration, the Global Alliance to End Statelessness, the 2030 Agenda, and the UNESCAP regional platform form a comprehensive framework. With continued regional cooperation and global engagement, Central Asia is well‑positioned to become the first region in the world to fully eradicate statelessness—transforming a decade of progress into a lasting legacy of inclusion.